一、经典替换词

1. individuals, characters, folks 替换 people , persons.

2. positive, favorable, rosy, promising, perfect, pleasurable, excellent, outstanding, superior 替换 good.

3. dreadful, unfavorable, poor, adverse, ill 替换 bad（如果bad做表语，可以有be less impressive替换。）

4. an army of, an ocean of, a sea of, a multitude of, a host of, if notmost 替换many.

5. a slice of, quiet a few 替换 some.

6. harbor the idea that, take the attitude that, hold the view that, it iswidely shared that, it is universally acknowledged that 替换 think。

7. affair, business, matter 替换 thing.

8. shared 替换common .

9. reap huge fruits 替换 get many benefits.

10. for my part ,from my own perspective 替换 in my opinion.

11. Increasing(ly), growing 替换 more and more（注意没有growingly这种形式。所以当修饰名词时用increasing/growing修饰形容词，副词用increasingly.）

12. little if anything或little or nothing 替换 hardly.

13. beneficial, rewarding 替换 helpful.

14. shopper, client, consumer, purchaser 替换 customer.

15. overwhelmingly, exceedingly, extremely, intensely 替换 very.

16. hardly necessary, hardly inevitable…替换 unnecessary, avoidable.

17. indispensable 替换 necessary.

18. sth appeals to sb, sth exerts a tremendous fascination on sb 替换sb take interest in /sb. be interested in.

19. capture one's attention 替换 attract one's attention.

20. facet, demension, sphere 替换 aspet.

21. be indicative of, be suggestive of, be fearful of 替换 indicate,suggest,fear.

22. give rise to, lead to, result in, trigger 替换 cause.

23. There are several reasons behind sth 替换…reasons for sth.

24. desire 替换want.

25. pour attention into 替换 pay attention to.

26. bear in mind that 替换 remember.

27. enjoy, possess 替换 have（注意process是过程的意思）。

28. interaction 替换 communication.

29. frown on sth 替换 be against , disagree with sth .

30. as an example 替换 for example, for instance.

31. next to / virtually impossible 替换 nearly / almost impossible.

32. regarding / concerning 替换 about.

33. crucial /paramount 替换 important.

34. 第一（inthe first place/the first and foremost）；第二（there is onemore point, I should touch on, that…）；第三（the last butnot the least）.

35. assiduous 替换 hard-working.

36. arduous 替换 difficult.

37. underdeveloped / financially-challenged 替换poor（因为poor通常含有贬义）.

38. demonstrate / manifest 替换 show.

39. invariably 替换 always.

40. perilous / hazardous替换 dangerous.

41. formidable 替换 difficult.

42. quintessential 替换 typical（举例时常用，例如：aquintessential example should be cited that=for example; for instance）.

43. distinguished 替换 famous.

44. feasible 替换 possible.

45. consequently, accordingly替换 so.

46. 通常，由数据推断出一定的结论，用Results indicate, infer, suggest, imply that……

47. 最常见的引述别人观点的词汇

Much of the research in sexual selection in the last two decades hasexamined how a female’s preference that does not influence her immediate reproductivesuccess can still evolve if it is genetically correlated with another characterunder direct selection.(不要每次写到研究时总用study，可以用些其它的词汇，比如examine，work。)

Two hypotheses for female preference evolution—runaway sexual selectionand good genes selection—state that preferences evolveindirectly because they are genetically correlated with male traits that areunder direct selection; that is, the preferences themselves are not underdirect selection.(在引述别人的观点时，如果不能完全同意，使用state 比show更加中立些。)

Studies of receiver biases suggest that such analogies might not bebroadly applicable.(suggest,又一种较为客观的引述观点的表达方法。)

Burley argued that the preference for red beaks is adaptive because itindicates male health, and this preference is then transferred to leg-bandcolor.(argue,引用别人观点的又一表述。)

According to the anti-monotony hypothesis, habituation plays an importantrole in the evolution of complex vocalizations in songbirds: Increased songcomplexity reduces habituation of neighboring males and courting females.(根据…)

Previous studies of acoustic and bioluminescent interactions hademphasized potential advantages to group-signaling organization, such asminimizing predation, preserving species-specific signal characters, orincreasing the attractiveness of the group.(带有小小的强调)

48.常见的连接词有，However, also, in addition, consequently, afterwards, moreover,Furthermore, further, although, unlike, in contrast, Similarly, Unfortunately,alternatively, parallel results, In order to, despite, For example, Comparedwith, other results, thus, therefore……用好连接词能使文章层次清楚，意思明确。比如，叙述有时间顺序的事件或文献，最早的文献可用AA advocated it for the first time.接下来可用ThenBB further demonstrated that. 再接下来，可用Afterwards, CC……如果还有，可用More recent studies by DD……

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二、常用句型

Beginning

1. In this paper, we focus on the need for

2. This paper proceeds as follow.

3. The structure of the paper is as follows.

4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and relatedconcepts

5. To begin with we will provide a brief background on the

Introduction

1. This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of theproblem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functionsare defined.

2. Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.

3. In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, varioussituations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirelypossibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochasticarrivals and non fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule areconsidered.

Review

1. This review is followed by an introduction.

2. A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx ispresented in Section 2.

3. In the next section, a brief review of the .... is given.

4. In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regardto ...

5. Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.

6. Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action,while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems andoutlines the need for development of possibility methods.

Body

1. Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for itsimportance.

2. Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision makinglogic.

3. Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxx

4. Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, naturallanguage understanding.

5. Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed interms of fuzzy time window

6. Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used inthe ...

7. Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ….. and also discusseshow to evaluate system performance.

8. Section 3 describes a new measure of xx.

9. Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in theanalysis of xx.

10. Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of humandecision.

11. Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzydecision rules

12. The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4describes the xx strategies.

13. Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposedmodel.

14. Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set based approach to costvariance investigation.

15. Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.

16. Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memoryprocess.

17. Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section2 and 3.

18. Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx andillustrate its use on experimental data.

19. Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model..

20. Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.

21. Section 6 illustrates the model with an example.

22. Various ways of justification and the reasons for their choice arediscussed very briefly in Section 2.

23. In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole modelof human DM system

24. In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a... scheme must satisfy.

25. In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniquenesstheorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain ofdiscourse is order dense.

26. In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empiricalstudy currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to constructmembership functions.

27. In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kindsof inference experiments...

This Section

1. In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP isdesigned are described.

2. We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations whichare necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Section

2. The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computerimplementation of such fuzzy logic statements.

3. However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practicalapplications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in thenext section.

4. The three components will be described in the next two section, and anexample of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustratetheir use.

5. We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in thefollowing sections.

6. The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful forarguments based on xx

Summary

1. This paper concludes with a discussion of future research considerationin section 5.

2. Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.

3. Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.

4. Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of thepaper.

5. Finally, conclusions and future work are summarized

6. The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions aredrawn.

7. Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.

Chapter 0. Abstract

1. A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xxrate for the measurement of experimental variables.

2. This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzymathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.

3. This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.

4. The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.

5. The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.

6. The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xxalgorithm.

7. The usefulness of xx is also considered.

8. A brief methodology used in xx is discussed.

9. The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.

10. A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.

11. Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presentedand justified.

12. The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.

13. Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedureare given to illustrate the proposed technique.

14. This paper analyses problems in

15. This paper outlines the functions carried out by ...

16. This paper includes an illustration of the ...

17. This paper provides an overview and information useful for approaching

18. Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function bywhich the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.

19. The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xx

20. Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.

21. The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phasesof: xx, xx

22. The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewiserepresented by linguistic variables.

23. A didactic example is included to illustrate the computationalprocedure

Time

1. Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive

2. Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial world

3. The advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the

4. The development of ... is explored

5. During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in avariety of directions

6.The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent years

7. There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance withthe advent of ...

8. A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...

9. A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.

10. At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xx

11. Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses,the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.

12. The pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].

13. To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far fromready to be used in commercial systems.

Objective / Goal / Purpose

1. The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:

2. The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non experts toutilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and toprovide intelligent, computer aided instruction for xxx.

3. The paper concerns the development of a xx

4. The scope of this research lies in

5. The main theme of the paper is the application of rule based decisionmaking.

6. These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence asto permit ...

7. The objectives of the ... operations study are as follows:

8. The primary purpose/consideration/objective of

9. The ultimate goal of this concept is to provide

10. The main objective of such a ... system is to

11. The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct suchprobability distribution.

12. In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the followingrequirements:

13. In order to take advantage of their similarity

14. more research is still required before final goal of ... can becompleted

15. In this trial, the objective is to generate...

16. for the sake of concentrating on ... research issues

17. A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recentlydeveloped procedure for the xx.

18. For an illustrative purpose, four well known OR problems are studiedin presence of fuzzy data: xx.

19. A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategiesfor structuring ..methods

20. This illustration points out the need to specify

21. The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.

22. Chapter 2. Literature Review

23. A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature,for example, regarding xx

24. A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the lastdecade

25. A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertaintiesassociated with xx.

26. There is considerable amount of literature on planning

27. However, these studies do not provide much attention to uncertainty inxx.

28. Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is stillunder investigation as well in

methodological aspects as in concrete applications.

29. Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.

30. Problem of xx draws recently more and more attention of systemanalysis.

31. Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of

32. Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this designprocedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.

33. Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /orprobabilistic in nature.

34. The central issue in all these studies is to

35. The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however,these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.

36. Applied ... techniques to

37. Characterized the ... system as

38. Developed an algorithm to

39. Developed a system called ... which

40. Uses an iterative algorithm to deduce

41. Emphasized the need to

42. Identifies six key issues surrounding high technology

43. A comprehensive study of the... has been undertaken

44. Much work has been reported recently in these filed

45. Proposed/Presented/State that/Described/Illustrated/

Indicated/Has shown / showed/Address/Highlights

46. Point out that the problem of

47. A study on ...was done / developed by []

48. Previous work, such as [] and [], deal only with

49. The approach taken by [] is

50. The system developed by [] consists

51. A paper relevant to this research was published by []

52. []'s model requires consideration of...

53. []' model draws attention to evolution in human development

54. []'s model focuses on...

55. Little research has been conducted in applying ... to

56. The published information that is relevant to this research...

57. This study further shows that

58. Their work is based on the principle of

59. More history of ... can be found in xx et al. [1979].

60. Studies have been completed to established

61. The ...studies indicated that

62. Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recentyears, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.

Problem / Issue / Question

63. Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturingplanning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model. They tend to spanbroad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.

64. Remedy / solve / alleviate these problems

67. ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolved

68. Two major problems have yet to be addressed

69. An unanswered question

70. This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.

71. An additional research issue to be tackled is ....

72. Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussed

73. The three prime issues can be summarized:

74. The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ...

75. There have been many attempts to

76. It is expected to be serious barrier to

77. It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex